Twentieth century management theory in today's organization - how relevant is a forty-year-old model in the contemporary context of a call center

[Abstract]: In the search to find the solution to the ‘one best way’ to provide a conduit for contact between organizations and their customers, call centers represent a recent incarnation of the principles of scientific management developed in the first decades of the last century. This paper seeks to apply another iconic legacy of twentieth century management theory, Tuckman’s four-stage model of group development devised in 1965, to organizations which didn’t exist when the original idea was first postulated. How relevant are the ‘forming’, storming’, norming, and ‘performing’ stages of progression to an environment renowned for constant changes to group membership? In his 1977 revision of the four-stage model with Jensen, Tuckman acknowledged the limited capacity of the theory to account for transient participation in groups. This paper reports the findings of research which provides evidence that Tuckman’s model describes accurately the patterns of behaviour demonstrated by groups of newly selected call center workers completing their initial induction training in an Australian, semi-government, call center. Call centers provide a contemporary context for the application of Taylorist management principles, symbolic of practice more readily associated with the industrial revolution than with ‘modern’ organizations. Tuckman’s 1965 model has a similar resonance for call centers today

Taylorism, targets, technology and teams - compatible concepts? Evidence from a US call centre

Taylorism, targets and technology form a potent mix in call centres where groups of individuals are asked to perform as “teams”. In this paper we explore how ‘task’ oriented concepts interact with the ‘interpersonal relationship’ realm in an environment where group life dominates the notional foundation of a call centre’s organisational structure. Tuckman’s four stage model of sequential group development serves as the theoretical lens through which the role ‘teams’ play in the working environment of a large call centre is examined.Our analysis of structured interviews conducted in an outbound, financial services call centre in the southern United States reveals the mechanisms by which agents have interpreted their ‘team charter’ to focus on individual achievement of increased remuneration levels. The interplay between these variables indicate that reward mechanisms associated with simple Taylorist targets, imposed on the entry level call centre agents, mitigate against meaningful group development. The advancement through promotion based on individual performance to more challenging, less target based work, is in sharp contrast to their initial training period where ‘team building’ is an essential ingredient of skills acquisition

An exploratory study to determine students' perceptions of the value of interaction in an Australian classroom context and the perceived impact on learning outcomes

Interaction has long been a defining and critical component of the educational process, whatever the classroom context (Anderson 2003). This paper presents findings of a study to explore the attitudes of students at an Australian university towards various types interactivity in the classroom. The study also investigates students perceptions of how interactivity in the classroom impacts on cognitive, affective and behavioural learning outcomes. In a recent review of the literature Muirhead & Juwah (2003) argue that interactivity is critical in underpinning the learning process in face-to-face, campus based and distance and online education. They say that interactions serve a diverse range of functions in the educational process, which include learner to learner, learner to content, learner to tutor, learner to technology, tutor to content, tutor to technology, content to content. These functions promote and enhance the quality of active, participative learning in a learning environment. However, literature indicates that attitudes towards active learning involving greater interactivity varies across students and between students and lecturers (Billings, Connors, & Skiba 2001). Investigation into student attitudes of the value and effectiveness of interaction is of particular interest for educators who are adapting the learning of a diverse range of students, including oncampus, distance, international, under and postgradute students. Much of the existing research into classroom interaction was grounded in the behaviourist and cognitive sciences approach to learning and teaching, where traditional classroom interaction placed the teacher at the centre of all activities as transmitter of knowledge and co-coordinator of student interaction (McLoughlin 2002). Those studies predate the recent application of constructivism (Bonk and Cunningham 1998) and social learning theory (Bandura (1977), and the emphasis on building life long learning skills. This research will contribute to current discussion about the role of interaction in learning, based on a constructivist approach to developing life long learning skills. This paper will present the findings of an exploratory study of students’ attitudes to various types of interaction in a classroom context. The first step of this exploratory study will employ a focus group approach to gather data from on campus students to identify the key issues that emerge from this data. These findings will be used to design a survey instrument to implement a follow-up research project

The future of family life for the working poor

This item provides a glimpse into the future for the working poor in Australia under Howard's WorkChoices based on a perspective gained in the USA. Home ownership, effective health cover and access to many of the opportunities that society offers the middle and upper classes, are denied to most working poor families

Perceptions of working life in call centres

[Abstract]: Call centres have emerged as an organisational phenomenon within a relatively short space of time. As a consequence of their rapid development, call centres have provided a rich topic for emerging academic investigation of the human element of the working environment.This paper presents a review of a range of articles commenting on the Taylorist heritage of call centres, and the emotional stresses imposed by a highly structured and monitored environment. Workers are at once cast as members of ‘teams’, structural elements of call centre organisations, and simultaneously expected to work largely in isolation from their colleagues with a minimum of social support. Where appropriate, reference is made to noteworthy supplementary sources which provide a prescient insight into the conditions which give rise to the concept of ‘emotional labour’. The distinguishing thread uniting the segments of this review is the impact of the routine work and the highly monitored nature of the environment

Tuckman's theory of group development in a call centre context: does it still work?

[Abstract]: Tuckman’s four stage model has endured as the most widely accepted explanation of group development since its inception in 1965. Largely by virtue of the appeal of the rhyming phases: forming, storming, norming and performing; but also because the model has held an intuitive appeal to those who have experienced group dynamics as a process of evolution from formation to termination. Based on a review of research into group development over a near twenty year period, Tuckman’s model had a firm foundation in published evidence. The model was subject to revision in 1977, with Mary-Ann Jensen, when a fifth, adjourning stage, was added. The most obvious impacts of the addition of the extra stage were the more explicit alignment of the model with the concept of finite group duration; and further exposition of the model’s limited ability to effectively encompass changes in group membership. Those few researchers who have pursued the challenge to develop group theory which adequately addresses temporal change to membership have invariably noted the paucity of research in the field. Unfortunately, this has also led to the construction of complex models, usually derived from laboratory research, which retain neither the simplicity of Tuckman’s original, nor show evidence of being tested within the wider scope of working life within organisations. This paper presents findings which indicate that Tuckman’s model remains relevant to the development of groups within call centres, particularly during the period of initial training of newly selected employees and subsequently, with minor modification through the inclusion of an additional temporary ‘phase’, to describe conditions imposed on groups by transience of group membership within the operational arena on the ‘floor’ of a call centre

Call centres, recent history - where have they come from and how did they get here?

The purpose of this paper is to review literature relevant to telephone call centres in order to provide readers with an understanding of the recent developmental history of call centres and answer the questions what are they?’ and ‘how did they get here? This will be achieved by drawing upon three broad and diverse categories of information: a representative selection of texts written on operational, technical and human resource related issues; journal articles in refereed publications; and, a review of the main stream and ‘trade’ media reporting of events effecting call centres which will, in the instance of the latter, principally focus on items gathered from Internet sources

On the compatibility of Taylorism, targets, technology and teams - evidence from a US Call Centre

Taylorism, targets and technology form a potent mix in call centres where groups of individuals are asked to perform as “teams”. In this paper we explore how ‘task’ oriented concepts interact with the ‘interpersonal relationship’ realm in an environment where group life dominates the notional foundation of a call centre’s organisational structure. Tuckman’s four stage model of sequential group development serves as the theoretical lens through which the role ‘teams’ play in the working environment of a large call centre is examined. Our analysis of structured interviews conducted in an outbound, financial services call centre in the southern United States reveals the mechanisms by which agents have interpreted their ‘team charter’ to focus on individual achievement of increased remuneration levels. The interplay between these variables indicate that reward mechanisms associated with simple Taylorist targets, imposed on the entry level call centre agents, mitigate against meaningful group development. The advancement through promotion based on individual performance to more challenging, less target based work, is in sharp contrast to their initial training period where ‘team building’ is an essential ingredient of skills acquisition

Autonomic logistics: an infrastructure approach

autonŏ΄mic a., (esp. Physiol., functioning involuntarily). logi΄stics n. pl. art of moving, lodging, and supplying troops and equipment. Autonomic Logistics, (AL), as the amalgamation of the two terms suggest, has the potential to 'happen automatically'. The integration of embedded advanced technology to the logistic function will have the same impact in Australia as Just In Time (JIT) has had on the production process. Our highly centralised manufacturing and distribution infrastructure, and long lines of communication, have diluted some of the JIT advantage within this country. A real risk for Australia is if AL serves as a bypass for domestic industry leading to the provision of logistic support directly from the USA, rather than from a national support base. This paper will consider the specific impact of AL within the context of the Joint Strike Fighter (JSF) project and the general implications for the application of AL within the economy of Australia and potentially, Asia. AL will create a demand for skilled personnel to support the requirements of the various industries. The initial resources (training and software) for JSF will be through the consortium (Lockheed Martin approved training). However, other military programs (new and retrofits) as well as commercial sectors (mining, rail, line-haul transport and automotive for example) will compete for these limited resources. In order to position itself for the Follow-On Development and Technology Refresh programs, Australia needs to have an indigenous capability. In countries such as the USA, corporations act as the developers of the capabilities leading to commercialisation of Defence programs. There are no corporate facilitators to develop an Australian infrastructure to support these requirements. The Australian JSF program needs to initiate and cultivate a Government sponsored board of stakeholders from Industry (Defence, Mining and Automotive), Military (Air Warfare Destroyer, Amphibious Ships and retrofits such as C-17) and Academic (Engineering, IS/IT and Logistics). Since AL is the heart of the F-35 being able to achieve cost and mission goals by exploiting acute window of availability and reduce downtime, any country wanting to compete for support contracts with countries outside the consortium will have to have an indigenous capability or be relegated to the comparatively limited areas of technology based manufacturing. In order to meet the challenge presented by the JSF program generally and AL specifically, a coordinated preparation, based on the cornerstone of training, must be provided in partnership to give the foundation Australian industry needs to participate in the subsequent phases of the JSF project in our region and beyond

Call centres in the mainstream and 'trade' media - 'Where did they come from and how did they get here?'

This global review of the recent revolution in the form and function of call centres is drawn from the mainstream media, articles in professional journals, and through Internet reporting of the political, legal and commercial pressures that have shaped the industry since 2001. The article follows the effect of trends in outsourcing, government influence, geographic location, technology and the working environment, qualifications, training and staff turnover on the industry. It observes how the initial surge to ‘off-shore’ call centres, from strong national customer service bases was reversed when a consumer backlash to ‘one-size-fits-all’ response was rejected by callers. Australia’s position as host to a thriving domestic call centre sector, and also as a potential target destination for offshore services from the United States of America, and to a lesser extent, from the United Kingdom, as a link in ‘follow-the-sun’ networks, and as an outsourcer of services is considered